Bulgaria's Varna gold undid the myth of an equal Copper Age
A cemetery near Varna in Bulgaria held 6,500-year-old gold in only a handful of graves, the earliest evidence that some people outranked others.
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What is materials science and engineering?
Three US university departments explain the field behind batteries and artificial skin. Its engineers test materials, pick them, and work out why parts fail.
Harry Brearley found stainless steel while testing gun barrels
Harry Brearley was hunting for a steel that would stop gun barrels wearing away. In 1913 his Sheffield lab produced one that would not rust instead.
Why a blast furnace makes iron, not steel
A blast furnace strips oxygen from iron ore to make pig iron, which carries too much carbon to be steel until a second furnace treats it.
Bessemer's process made steel ten times faster
Henry Bessemer patented a way to turn molten iron into steel with a blast of air in 1855. It cut batch times tenfold and made cheap steel possible.